Awareness of Racism Among Social Work Students in a Challenging Era
An Application of Social Ecological Model
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18060/24969Keywords:
Social Work Student, awareness of racism, social network, social work education, color-blind racial attitudesAbstract
This study focused on understanding individual (e.g., political identity and alignment of social work core values with the Black Lives Matter movement and the All Lives Matter argument) and social environmental correlates (e.g., social network composition) of awareness of racism among social work students. A convenience sample of social work students (n=98) recruited from a major Midwest land grant university completed an online anonymous survey with questions covering individual characteristics, social network information, and attitudes toward social phenomena. The Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale was used to assess overall awareness of racism, White privilege, institutional racism, and blatant racism. Regression models were conducted to identify correlates of these domains of racial attitudes separately. Liberal political view identification and alignment of Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement with social work core values were associated with better awareness of racism across all domains; aligning All Lives Matter with social work core values was associated with unawareness of overall racism, institutional racism, and blatant racism. Finally, discussion on racial issues with network members was associated with better awareness of overall racism, White privilege, and blatant racism. Social work programs should facilitate inter-group dialogues to build consensus on countering racism. Discussions on the mission and the context of BLM and its opposition efforts should also be incorporated in the curriculum. Finally, more emphasis on the impact of institutional racism should be included into course activities to further discussion on such topics within students’ network.
References
Aboud, F. E., & Doyle, A. B. (1996). Parental and peer influences on children's racial attitudes. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(3-4), 371-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(96)00024-7
Abrams, L. S., & Moio, J. A. (2009). Critical race theory and the cultural competence dilemma in social work education. Journal of Social Work Education, 45(2), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.5175/JSWE.2009.200700109
Amaya, K. (2017). Perceptions of racism among college students: Race, gender, and the influence of social media. http://purl.flvc.org/fsu/fd/FSU_libsubv1_scholarship_submission_1513037496_a2cdd06a
American Public Health Association. (2021). Racism is a public health crisis. https://www.apha.org/Topics-and-Issues/Health-Equity/Racism-and-health/Racism-Declarations
Atkins, A. (2019). Black lives matter or all lives matter? Color-blindness and epistemic injustice. Social Epistemology, 33(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2018.1483879
Barsky, A. (2021). Ethics alive: Special report on the 2021 revision to the NASW Code of Ethics. https://www.socialworker.com/feature-articles/ethics-articles/special-report-2021-revisions-nasw-code-of-ethics/
Bell, M. P., Berry, D., Leopold, J., & Nkomo, S. (2021). Making Black lives matter in academia: A black feminist call for collective action against anti‐blackness in the academy. Gender, Work & Organization, 28, 39-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwao.12555
Boddie, S. C., Kyere, E., & Adedoyin, A. C. (2019). A meta-theoretical framework for understanding educational disparities affecting Black youth in the United States: Implications for social work. Urban Social Work, 3(2), 187-206. https://doi.org/10.1891/2474-8684.3.2.187
Bowman, N. A. (2012). Promoting sustained engagement with diversity: The reciprocal relationships between informal and formal college diversity experiences. The Review of Higher Education, 36(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2012.0057
Brigham, J. C. (1993). College students' racial attitudes. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(22), 1933–1967. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1993.tb01074.x
Brookings Institute. (2021). New 2020 census results show increased diversity countering decade-long declines in America’s white and youth populations. https://www.brookings.edu/research/new-2020-census-results-show-increased-diversity-countering-decade-long-declines-in-americas-white-and-youth-populations/
Butcher, J., & Burke, L. (2021). Seven steps to combatting “Critical Theory” in the classroom. Heritage Foundation Issue Brief. https://www.heritage.org/education/report/seven-steps-combatting-critical-theory-the-classroom
Campbell, K. E., & Lee, B. A. (1991). Name generators in surveys of personal networks. Social Networks, 13(3), 203-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(91)90006-F
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2021). Racism and health – Racism is a serious threat to the public’s health. https://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/racism-disparities/index.html
Council on Social Work Education Center for Diversity and Social & Economic Justice. (2017). Teaching diversity and justice: Priorities of social work educators. https://www.cswe.org/getattachment/Centers-Initiatives/Centers/Center-for-Diversity/About/Diversity-Justice-Education-Priorities/Special-Topic-Div-Justice-2017-Report-3-2020-FINAL.pdf
Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2014). More diverse yet less tolerant? How the increasingly diverse racial landscape affects white Americans’ racial attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(6), 750-761. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167214524993
Craig, M. A., & Richeson, J. A. (2017). Information about the US racial demographic shift triggers concerns about anti-White discrimination among the prospective White “minority”. PloS one, 12(9), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(91)90006-F
Craig, M. A., Rucker, J., & Brown, R. M. (2020, June 10). Structural solidarity: Lay theories of discrimination and coalitional attitudes among stigmatized groups. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/u9sf6
Crawford, S. D., Couper, M. P., & Lamias, M. J. (2001). Web surveys: Perceptions of burden. Social Science Computer Review, 19(2), 146–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443930101900202
Danforth, L., Hsu, H. T., & Miller, J. W. (2020). Color-blind racial attitudes among social work students: Exploration of individual and social network correlates. Journal of Social Work Education, 56(3), 412-427. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2019.1661910
Davis, L. E., & Proctor, E. K. (1984). Student racial attitudes and perceptions of casual events at entry to graduate social work education. Journal Sociology & Social Welfare, 11(3), 623-638. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1668&context=jssw
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (2012). Critical race theory: An introduction (2nd ed.). NYU Press.
Dessel, A., Rogge, M. E., & Garlington, S. B. (2006). Using intergroup dialogue to promote social justice and change. Social Work, 51(4), 303-315. https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/51.4.303
Feldman, S., & Huddy, L. (2005). Racial resentment and white opposition to race-conscious programs: Principles or prejudice? American Journal of Political Science, 49(1), 168–183. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2005.00117.x
Fisher-Borne, M., Cain, J. M., & Martin, S. L. (2015). From mastery to accountability: Cultural humility as an alternative to cultural competence. Social Work Education, 34(2), 165–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2014.977244
Flores, A. R. (2017). Yes, there is racism in the LGBTQ community. But there’s more outside it. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/07/07/yes-there-is-racism-in-the-lgbtq-community-but-not-as-much-as-outside-it/
Ghabrial, M. A. (2017). “Trying to figure out where we belong”: Narratives of racialized sexual minorities on community, identity, discrimination, and health. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 14(1), 42-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-016-0229-x
Gray, N. N., Mendelsohn, D. M., & Omoto, A. M. (2015). Community connectedness, challenges, and resilience among gay Latino immigrants. American Journal of Community Psychology, 55(1-2), 202-214. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9697-4
Grollman, E. A. (2018, March). Sexual orientation differences in Whites’ racial attitudes. Sociological Forum, 33(1), 186-210). https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12405
Han, C. (2007). They don’t want to cruise your type: Gay men of color and the racial politics of exclusion. Social Identities, 13(1), 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630601163379
Hunt, M. O. (2007). African American, Hispanic, and white beliefs about black/white inequality. The American Sociological Review, 72(3), 390–415. https://doi.org/10.1177/000312240707200304
Ibrahimi, S., Yusuf, K. K., Dongarwar, D., Maiyegun, S. O., Ikedionwu, C., & Salihu, H. M. (2020). COVID-19 devastation of African American families: Impact on mental health and the consequence of systemic racism. International Journal of Maternal and Child Health and AIDS, 9(3), 390-393. https://mchandaids.org/index.php/IJMA/article/view/408/191
Iceland, J. (2019). Racial and ethnic inequality in poverty and affluence, 1959–2015. Population Research and Policy Review, 38(5), 615-654. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-019-09512-7
Kaya, A., & Boz, İ. (2019). The development of the professional values model in nursing. Nursing Ethics, 26(3), 914-923. https://doi.org/10.1177/0969733017730685
Keiser, J. (2021). The “All Lives Matter” response: QUD-shifting as epistemic injustice. Synthese, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-021-03171-y
Kolivoski, K. M., Weaver, A., & Constance-Huggins, M. (2014). Critical race theory: Opportunities for application in social work practice and policy. Families in Society, 95(4), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1606/1044-3894.2014.95.36
Lerner, J. E. (2020). “Social workers can’t be Republicans”: Engaging conservative students in the classroom. Journal of Social Work Education, 56(1), 56-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2019.1642274
Lo, C. C., Cheng, T. C., & Smith, G. P. A. (2016). Racial attitudes characterizing social work students at a southern university. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 86(2), 156–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377317.2016.1149347
Lopez, G. (2004). Interethnic contact, curriculum, and attitudes in the first year of college. Journal of Social Issues, 60, 75–94. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-4537.2004.00100.x
Loya, M. (2011). Color-blind racial attitudes in white social workers: A cross-sectional study. Smith College Studies in Social Work, 81(2), 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/00377317.2011.589341
Loyd, A. B., & Gaither, S. E. (2018). Racial/ethnic socialization for White youth: What we know and future directions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 59, 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.05.004
Mayorga, E., & Picower, B. (2018). Active solidarity: Centering the demands and vision of the Black Lives Matter movement in teacher education. Urban Education, 53(2), 212-230. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085917747117
Montgomery, S. C., Donnelly, M., Bhatnagar, P., Carlin, A., Kee, F., & Hunter, R. F. (2020). Peer social network processes and adolescent health behaviors: A systematic review. Preventive Medicine, 130, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.105900
Neville, H. A., Lilly, R. L., Duran, G., Lee, R. M., & Browne, L. (2000). Construction and initial validation of the color-blind racial attitudes scale (CoBRAS). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47(1), 59-70. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.47.1.59
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., & Gee, G. (2015). Racism as a determinant of health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PloS one, 10(9), 1-48. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511
Pattison, S., & Pill, R. (2020). Professions and values: A dynamic relationship. In Values in professional practice: Lessons for health, social care and other professionals (pp. 197-207). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315375571-20
Pauker, K., Carpinella, C., Meyers, C., Young, D. M., & Sanchez, D. T. (2018a). The role of diversity exposure in Whites’ reduction in race essentialism over time. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(8), 944-952. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617731496
Pauker, K., Meyers, C., Sanchez, D. T., Gaither, S. E., & Young, D. M. (2018b). A review of multiracial malleability: Identity, categorization, and shifting racial attitudes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 12(6), 1-15.
Priest, N., Walton, J., White, F., Kowal, E., Baker, A., & Paradies, Y. (2014). Understanding the complexities of ethnic-racial socialization processes for both minority and majority groups: A 30-year systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 139-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2014.08.003
Richeson, J. A., Trawalter, S., & Shelton, J. N. (2005). African Americans' implicit racial attitudes and the depletion of executive function after interracial interactions. Social Cognition, 23(4), 336-352. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2005.23.4.336
Rosen, D., McCall, J., & Goodkind, S. (2017). Teaching critical self-reflection through the lens of cultural humility: An assignment in a social work diversity course. Social Work Education, 36(3), 289–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/02615479.2017.1287260
Ruggiano, N., Ellis, T., Gibson, K., Smith, S., Turner, C., Curington, A., Phelps, C., Ferruccio, A., & Fendley, K. (2020). The Unity Wall project: A student-led community organizing effort to advance public discourse on social justice. Journal of Community Practice, 28(2), 132-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705422.2020.1757007
Shelton, J. N., & Richeson, J. A. (2006). Ethnic minorities' racial attitudes and contact experiences with white people. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(1), 149-164. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.1.149
Sijtsema, J. J., & Lindenberg, S. M. (2018). Peer influence in the development of adolescent antisocial behavior: Advances from dynamic social network studies. Developmental Review, 50, 140-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.08.002
Smith, T. B., Bowman, R., & Hsu, S. (2017). Racial attitudes among Asian and European American college students: A cross-cultural examination. College Student Journal, 41, 436‐443. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3056&context=facpub
Spanierman, L. B., Beard, J. C., & Todd, N. R. (2012). White men’s fears, White women’s tears: Examining gender differences in racial affect types. Sex Roles, 67(3), 174-186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0162-2
Spencer, M. B. (2007). Phenomenology and ecological systems theory: Development of diverse groups. In W. Damon, R. M. Lerner, & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 696-734). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0115
Tan, A., Tan, G., Avdeyeva, T., Crandall, H., Fukushi, Y., Nyandwi, A., Chin, H.-Y., & Wu, C.-G. (2010). Changing negative racial stereotypes: The influence of normative peer information. Howard Journal of Communication, 12(3), 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1080/106461701753210448
U.S. Census Bureau. (2021). 2020 Census statistics highlight local population changes and nation’s racial and ethnic diversity. https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/population-changes-nations-diversity.html
Weigel, R. H., & Howes, P. W. (1985). Conceptions of racial prejudice: Symbolic racism reconsidered. Journal of Social Issues, 41(3), 117–138. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1985.tb01132.x
West, K., Greenland, K., & van Laar, C. (2021). Implicit racism, colour blindness, and narrow definitions of discrimination: Why some White people prefer ‘All Lives Matter’ to ‘Black Lives Matter’. British Journal of Social Psychology, 60(4), 1136-1153. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12458
Yarrow, L. J., & Zaslow, M. (1981). Review of the ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 51(2), 363–365. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0098898
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Hsun-Ta Hsu, Ashley Givens, Rachel Bailey, Che Wilson, Ryan Rattliff, Virginia Ramseyer Winter
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
