Advancing Child Trauma Screening Practices
An Evidence-Informed Framework for a Pictorial Child Trauma Screening Tool
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.18060/24428Keywords:
child trauma, trauma screening, complex trauma, child trauma measurementAbstract
Child trauma screening practices have advanced considerably as child-serving systems have increasingly incorporated early identification and intervention into trauma-informed models of care. While research points to the necessity of screening practices that attend to a child’s developmental capacities, cultural background, relational strengths, contextual details surrounding the traumatic experience, and complex trauma considerations, many of these features remain absent in common brief screening measures used in practice. Pictorial screening measures may offer an innovative opportunity to address attentional concerns and developmental capacities of young and complexly traumatized children, yet are understudied in this area. The purpose of this paper is threefold: 1) highlight areas for expansion within current brief trauma screening models, 2) propose an evidence-informed framework for a pictorial complex trauma screening tool for children, and 3) offer implementation considerations for piloting the proposed screening tool. Piloting and implementation considerations address the importance of cognitive interviewing, cultural sensitivity, development of a companion response and referral protocol, and embedding principles of trauma-informed care in the training and implementation process.
References
Akin, B. A., Strolin-Goltzman, J., & Collins-Camargo, C. (2017). Successes and challenges in developing trauma-informed child welfare systems: A real-world case study of exploration and initial implementation. Children and Youth Services Review, 82, 42-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.09.007
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Ballard, E. D., Van Eck, K., Musci, R. J., Hart, S. R., Storr, C. L., Breslau, N., & Wilcox, H. C. (2015). Latent classes of childhood trauma exposure predict the development of behavioral health outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 45(15), 3305-3316. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0033291715001300
Bartlett, J. D. (2020). Screening for childhood adversity: Contemporary challenges and recommendations. Adversity and Resilience Science, 1, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42844-020-00004-8
Berliner, L., Meiser‑Stedman, R., & Danese, A. (2020). Screening, assessment, and diagnosis in children and adolescents. In D. Forbes, J. I. Bisson, C. M. Monson, & L. Berliner (Eds.), Effective treatments for PTSD: Practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (3rd ed., pp. 69-89). Guilford Press.
Branson, C. E., Baetz, C. L., Horwitz, S. M., & Hoagwood, K. E. (2017). Trauma-informed juvenile justice systems: A systematic review of definitions and core components. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(6), 635-646. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000255
Briere, J. (1996). Trauma symptom checklist for children. Psychological Assessment Resources. https://www.nctsn.org/measures/trauma-symptom-checklist-children
Brown, S. M., & Shillington, A. M. (2017). Childhood adversity and the risk of substance use and delinquency: The role of protective adult relationships. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 211-221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.11.006
Butcher, R. L., Jankowski, M. K., & Slade, E. D. (2020). The costs of implementing and sustaining a trauma and mental health screening tool in a state child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 114, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105011
Cecil, C. A., McCrory, E. J., Viding, E., Holden, G. W., & Barker, E. D. (2016). Initial validation of a brief pictorial measure of caregiver aggression: The Family Aggression Screening Tool. Assessment, 23(3), 307-320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191115587552
Choi, K. R., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2018). Developmental considerations for assessment of trauma symptoms in preschoolers: A review of measures and diagnoses. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(11), 3427-3439. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1177-2
Conradi, L., Wherry, J., & Kisiel, C. (2011). Linking child welfare and mental health using trauma-informed screening and assessment practices. Child Welfare, 90(6), 129-147.
Constantinidou, F., Danos, M. A., Nelson, D., & Baker, S. (2011). Effects of modality presentation on working memory in school-age children: Evidence for the pictorial superiority hypothesis. Child Neuropsychology, 17(2), 173-196. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2010.525503
Coohey, C., Renner, L. M., Hua, L., Zhang, Y. J., & Whitney, S. D. (2011). Academic achievement despite child maltreatment: A longitudinal study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(9), 688-699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.05.009
Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., DeRosa, R., Hubbard, R., Kagan, R., Liautaud, J. & Mallah, K., Olafson, E., & van der Kolk, B. (2017). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 390-398. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-05
Copeland, W. E., Shanahan, L., Hinesley, J., Chan, R. F., Aberg, K. A., Fairbank, J. A., van den Oord, E. J. C. G. & Costello, E. J. (2018). Association of childhood trauma exposure with adult psychiatric disorders and functional outcomes. JAMA Network Open, 1(7), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4493
D'Andrea, W., Ford, J., Stolbach, B., Spinazzola, J., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2012). Understanding interpersonal trauma in children: Why we need a developmentally appropriate trauma diagnosis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82(2), 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.2012.01154.x
De Bellis, M. D., & Zisk, A. (2014). The biological effects of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics, 23(2), 185-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.01.002
de Leeuw, E. D. (2011, May). Improving data quality when surveying children and adolescents: Cognitive and social development and its role in questionnaire construction and pretesting. Academy of Finland: Research Programs Public Health Challenges and Health and Welfare of Children and Young People. https://www.aka.fi/globalassets/awanhat/documents/tiedostot/lapset/presentations-of-the-annual-seminar-10-12-may-2011/surveying-children-and-adolescents_de-leeuw.pdf
Deighton, J., Croudace, T., Fonagy, P., Brown, J., Patalay, P., & Wolpert, M. (2014). Measuring mental health and wellbeing outcomes for children and adolescents to inform practice and policy: A review of child self-report measures. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 8(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-8-14
Denton, R., Frogley, C., Jackson, S., John, M., & Querstret, D. (2017). The assessment of developmental trauma in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 22(2), 260-287. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104516631607
DePierro, J., D'Andrea, W., Spinazzola, J., Stafford, E., van Der Kolk, B., Saxe, G., Stolbach, B., McKernan, S., & Ford, J. D. (2019). Beyond PTSD: Client presentations of developmental trauma disorder from a national survey of clinicians. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000532
Drennan, J. (2003). Cognitive interviewing: verbal data in the design and pretesting of questionnaires. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 42(1), 57-63. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.2003.02579.x
Dye, H. (2018). The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 28(3), 381-392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1435328
Eklund, K., Rossen, E., Koriakin, T., Chafouleas, S. M., & Resnick, C. (2018). A systematic review of trauma screening measures for children and adolescents. School Psychology Quarterly, 33(1), 30-43. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000244
Engelbrecht, A., & Jobson, L. (2016). Exploring trauma associated appraisals in trauma survivors from collectivistic cultures. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3043-2
Finkelhor, D. (2018). Screening for adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Cautions and suggestions. Child Abuse & Neglect, 85, 174-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.07.016
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., & Hamby, S. L. (2013). Violence, crime, and abuse exposure in a national sample of children and youth: An update. JAMA Pediatrics, 167(7), 614-621. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2013.42
Foa, E. B., Asnaani, A., Zang, Y., Capaldi, S., & Yeh, R. (2018). Psychometrics of the Child PTSD Symptom Scale for DSM-5 for trauma-exposed children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(1), 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2017.1350962
Ford, J. D. (2011). Assessing child and adolescent complex traumatic stress reactions. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 4(3), 217-232. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361521.2011.597080
Fraser, J. G., Noroña, C. R., Bartlett, J. D., Zhang, J., Spinazzola, J., Griffin, J. L., Montagna, C., Todd, M., Bodian, R. & Barto, B. (2019). Screening for trauma symptoms in child welfare-involved young children: Findings from a statewide trauma-informed care initiative. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 12(3), 399-409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-018-0240-x
Gadeberg, A. K., Montgomery, E., Frederiksen, H. W., & Norredam, M. (2017). Assessing trauma and mental health in refugee children and youth: A systematic review of validated screening and measurement tools. European Journal of Public Health, 27(3), 439-446. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckx034
Greeson, J. K., Briggs, E. C., Kisiel, C. L., Layne, C. M., Ake III, G. S., Ko, S. J., Gerrity, E. T., Steinberg, A. M., Howard, M. L., Pynoos, R. S., & Fairbank, J. A. (2011). Complex trauma and mental health in children and adolescents placed in foster care: Findings from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Child Welfare, 90(6), 91-108. https://doi.org/10.1037/e517292011-371
Greeson, J. K., Briggs, E. C., Layne, C. M., Belcher, H. M., Ostrowski, S. A., Kim, S., Lee, R. C., Vivrette, R. L., Pynoos, R. S., & Fairbank, J. A. (2014). Traumatic childhood experiences in the 21st century: Broadening and building on the ACE studies with data from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29(3), 536-556. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513505217
Griffin, G., McClelland, G., Holzberg, M., Stolbach, B., Maj, N., & Kisiel, C. (2011). Addressing the impact of trauma before diagnosing mental illness in child welfare. Child Welfare, 90(6), 69-89.
Hambrick, E. P., Brawner, T. W., & Perry, B. D. (2018). Examining developmental adversity and connectedness in child welfare-involved children. Children Australia, 43(2), 105-115. https://doi.org/10.1017/cha.2018.21
Hambrick, E. P., Brawner, T. W., Perry, B. D., Brandt, K., Hofmeister, C., & Collins, J. O. (2019). Beyond the ACE score: Examining relationships between timing of developmental adversity, relational health and developmental outcomes in children. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 33(3), 238-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2018.11.001
Hitch, G. J., Halliday, S., Schaafstal, A. M., & Schraagen, J. M. C. (1988). Visual working memory in young children. Memory & Cognition, 16(2), 120-132. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03213479
Hoover, D. W., & Romero, E. M. (2019). The Interactive Trauma Scale: A web-based measure for children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(4), 1686-1692. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-03864-3
Humphreys, K. L., Weems, C. F., & Scheeringa, M. S. (2017). The role of anxiety control and treatment implications of informant agreement on child PTSD symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46(6), 903-914. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2015.1094739
John, S. G., Brandt, T. W., Secrist, M. E., Mesman, G. R., Sigel, B. A., & Kramer, T. L. (2019). Empirically-guided assessment of complex trauma for children in foster care: A focus on appropriate diagnosis of attachment concerns. Psychological Services, 16(1), 120-133. https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000263
Kerig, P. K., Ford, J. D., & Olafson, E. (2014). Assessing exposure to psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress in the juvenile justice population. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources//assessing_exposure_to_trauma_and_posttraumatic_stress_symptoms_in_juvenile_justice_population.pdf
King, J. A., Solomon, P., & Ford, J. D. (2017). The Cameron Complex Trauma Interview (CCTI): Development, psychometric properties, and clinical utility. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(1), 18-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/tra0000138
Kisiel, C., Fehrenbach, T., Small, L., & Lyons, J. S. (2009). Assessment of complex trauma exposure, responses, and service needs among children and adolescents in child welfare. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 2(3), 143-160. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520903120467
Kisiel, C., Patterson, N., Torgersen, E., den Dunnen, W., Villa, C., & Fehrenbach, T. (2018). Assessment of the complex effects of trauma across child serving settings: Measurement properties of the CANS-Trauma Comprehensive. Children and Youth Services Review, 86, 64-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.12.032
Lang, J. M., & Connell, C. M. (2017). Development and validation of a brief trauma screening measure for children: The Child Trauma Screen. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(3), 390-398. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000235
Lanktree, C. B., Gilbert, A. M., Briere, J., Taylor, N., Chen, K., Maida, C. A., & Saltzman, W. R. (2008). Multi-informant assessment of maltreated children: Convergent and discriminant validity of the TSCC and TSCYC. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(6), 621-625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2007.10.003
LaPietra, E., Urban, J. B., & Linver, M. R. (2020). Using cognitive interviewing to test youth survey and interview items in evaluation: A case example. Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation, 16(37), 74-96.
Leigh, E., Yule, W., & Smith, P. (2016). Measurement issues: Measurement of posttraumatic stress disorder in children and young people–lessons from research and practice. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 21(2), 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12124
McMillen, J. C., Fedoravicius, N., Rowe, J., Zima, B. T., & Ware, N. (2007). A crisis of credibility: Professionals’ concerns about the psychiatric care provided to clients of the child welfare system. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 34(3), 203-212. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-006-0096-5
Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2007). Parent and child agreement for acute stress disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder and other psychopathology in a prospective study of children and adolescents exposed to single-event trauma. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(2), 191-201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9068-1
Muris, P., Meesters, C., & van den Berg, F. (2003). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ). European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 12(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-003-0298-2
Nader, K. (2007). Culture and the assessment of trauma in youths. In J. P. Wilson & C. So-kum Tang (Eds.), Cross-cultural assessment of psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 169-196). Springer.
Nader, K., Kriegler, K. A., Blake, D. D., Pynoos, R. S., Newman, E., & Weathers, F. W. (1996). Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for Children and Adolescents (CAPS-CA) [Database record]. APA PsycTests. https://doi.org/10.1037/t08962-000
National Child Traumatic Stress Network [NCTSN]. (2018). Assessment of complex trauma by mental health professionals. NCTSN. https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources/fact-sheet/assessment_of_complex_trauma_by_mental_health_professionals.pdf
NCTSN. (2021). Screening and assessment: All measure reviews. NCTSN. https://www.nctsn.org/treatments-and-practices/screening-and-assessments/measure-reviews/all-measure-reviews
Oh, D. L., Jerman, P., Boparai, S. K. P., Koita, K., Briner, S., Bucci, M., & Harris, N. B. (2018). Review of tools for measuring exposure to adversity in children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 32(6), 564-583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedhc.2018.04.021
Perkins, S., & Graham-Bermann, S. (2012). Violence exposure and the development of school-related functioning: Mental health, neurocognition, and learning. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(1), 89-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2011.10.001
Perry, D. L., & Daniels, M. L. (2016). Implementing trauma—informed practices in the school setting: A pilot study. School Mental Health, 8(1), 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-016-9182-3
Perry, J. M., Modesti, C., Talamo, A., & Nicolais, G. (2019). Culturally sensitive PTSD screening in non-western youth: Reflections and indications for mental health practitioners. Journal of Refugee Studies, 32, i151-i161. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez053
Praver, F., DiGiuseppe, R., Pelcovitz, D., Mandel, F. S., & Gaines, R. (2000). A preliminary study of a cartoon measure for children's reactions to chronic trauma. Child Maltreatment, 5(3), 273-285.
Price, M., Higa-McMillan, C., Kim, S., & Frueh, B. C. (2013). Trauma experience in children and adolescents: An assessment of the effects of trauma type and role of interpersonal proximity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27(7), 652-660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2013.07.009
Reid, C., Davis, H., Horlin, C., Anderson, M., Baughman, N., & Campbell, C. (2013). The Kids' Empathic Development Scale (KEDS): A multi‐dimensional measure of empathy in primary school‐aged children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 31(2), 231-256. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12002
Sachser, C., Berliner, L., Holt, T., Jensen, T. K., Jungbluth, N., Risch, E., Rosner, R., & Goldbeck, L. (2017). International development and psychometric properties of the Child and Adolescent Trauma Screen (CATS). Journal of Affective Disorders, 210, 189-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2016.12.040
Scheeringa, M. (2013). Young Child PTSD Checklist. Updated version. Tulane University School of Medicine. https://medicine.tulane.edu/sites/g/files/rdw761/f/YCPC_v5_23_14.pdf
Scheeringa, M. S. (2019). Development of a brief screen for symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in young children: The Young Child PTSD Screen (YCPS). Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics: JDBP, 40(2), 105-111. https://doi.org/10.1097/dbp.0000000000000639
Scheeringa, M. S., Zeanah, C. H., & Cohen, J. A. (2011). PTSD in children and adolescents: Toward an empirically based algorithm. Depression and Anxiety, 28(9), 770-782. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20736
Schreier, H., Ladakakos, C., Morabito, D., Chapman, L., & Knudson, M. M. (2005). Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after mild to moderate pediatric trauma: A longitudinal examination of symptom prevalence, correlates, and parent-child symptom reporting. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 58(2), 353-363. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ta.0000152537.15672.b7
Sidebotham, P. (2015). Learning to listen: To young people, parents, perpetrators. Child Abuse Review, 24(3), 155-158. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2388
Southwick, S. M., Morgan III, C. A., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. (2007). Mentors enhance resilience in at-risk children and adolescents. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 26(4), 577-584. https://doi.org/10.1080/07351690701310631
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Briggs, E. C., Ippen, C. G., Ostrowski, S. A., Gully, K. J., & Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD Reaction Index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21780
Stover, C. S., & Berkowitz, S. (2005). Assessing violence exposure and trauma symptoms in young children: A critical review of measures. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18(6), 707-717. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20079
Stover, C. S., Hahn, H., Im, J. J., & Berkowitz, S. (2010). Agreement of parent and child reports of trauma exposure and symptoms in the early aftermath of a traumatic event. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2(3), 159-168. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019156
Strand, V. C., Sarmiento, T. L., & Pasquale, L. E. (2005). Assessment and screening tools for trauma in children and adolescents: A review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6(1), 55-78. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838004272559
Sturgess, J., Rodger, S., & Ozanne, A. (2002). A review of the use of self-report assessment with young children. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 65(3), 108-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/030802260206500302
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA]. (2009). Addressing the Specific Needs of Women. (Treatment Improvement Protocol [TIP] Series, No. 51.) Chapter 4: Screening and Assessment. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83253/
SAMHSA. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. HHS Publication No. (SMA) 14-4884. https://ncsacw.samhsa.gov/userfiles/files/SAMHSA_Trauma.pdf
Thompson, R., & Whimper, L. A. (2010). Exposure to family violence and reading level of early adolescents. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 19(7), 721-733. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926771003781347
Tingskull, S., Svedin, C. G., Agnafors, S., Sydsjö, G., deKeyser, L., & Nilsson, D. (2015). Parent and child agreement on experience of potential traumatic events. Child Abuse Review, 24(3), 170-181. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2287
Turner, H. A., Shattuck, A., Finkelhor, D., & Hamby, S. (2016). Polyvictimization and youth violence exposure across contexts. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(2), 208-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.09.021
Valla, J. P., Bergeron, L., & Smolla, N. (2000). The Dominic-R: A pictorial interview for 6- to 11-year-old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(1), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200001000-00020
Van der Kolk, B. A. (2017). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401-408. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06
Virginia HEALS. (2019). Referral and response protocol. Virginia HEALS. https://virginiaheals.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/referral_and_response_protocol_FINAL.pdf
von der Embse, N., Rutherford, L., Mankin, A., & Jenkins, A. (2019). Demonstration of a trauma-informed assessment to intervention model in a large urban school district. School Mental Health, 11(2), 276-289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-018-9294-z
Whitt-Woosley, A. (2020). Trauma screening and assessment outcomes in child welfare: A systematic review. Journal of Public Child Welfare, 14(4), 412-434. https://doi.org/10.1080/15548732.2019.1623965
Zheng, P., & Gray, M. J. (2015). Posttraumatic coping and distress: An evaluation of Western conceptualization of trauma and its applicability to Chinese culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(5), 723-736. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115580848
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Kylie E. Evans, Jennifer A. King, Megan R. Holmes
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
